The Problem of Spectator Violence in Stadiums
What This
Guide Does and Does Not Cover
This
guide addresses the problem of spectator violence in stadiums and other
arena-type settings. It begins with a discussion of the factors that contribute
to such incidents. It then presents a list of questions to help you analyze
problems of spectator violence in your jurisdiction. Finally, it reviews
responses to the problem, and what is known about them from evaluative research
and police practice.
Spectator
violence in stadiums is part of a larger set of problems related to misbehavior
in sport and concert arenas. It is also related to issues of crowd control at
other types of locations. However, this guide addresses only the particular
harms that result from spectator-related conflicts occurring within and
directly outside stadiums. Related problems not directly addressed in this
guide include
·
public
intoxication,
·
ticket
scalping,
·
underage
drinking,
·
crowd
control in open fields and along public thoroughfares,
·
student
party riots,
·
littering,
·
terrorism
acts,
·
loitering,
and
·
traffic
congestion.
Each of
the above problems has a specific opportunity structure and therefore requires
separate analysis and response. You may find that these related problems have
opportunity structures that overlap with the opportunity structure for
spectator violence. By eliminating the opportunity for spectator violence, you
can also reduce opportunities for other types of harm (e.g., terrorist acts or
underage drinking). Nevertheless, each problem warrants individual attention.
Some of these related problems are covered in other guides in this series, all
of which are listed at the end of this guide. For the most up-to-date listing
of current and future guides, see www.popcenter.org.
General
Description of the Problem
Policing stadium
crowds is a difficult task. Spectator aggression is often only one of many
public safety concerns.1 Police are
forced to balance the interests of many different parties (e.g., performers who
want audience participation, owners and vendors who wish to generate profits).
Obviously, police cannot address all causes of spectator violence. It would be
difficult to convince team owners that they should discourage highly dedicated
fans. In addition, police must protect individuals' rights while maintaining an
orderly environment. While spectators have rights, police should not tolerate
property destruction and threats or acts of violence.2
Spectator
violence in stadiums has been a longstanding tradition.† Documentation
of such events is found in texts from ancient Greece and the Roman Empire.3 These incidents
can occur wherever fans gather, including sports competitions (e.g., baseball,
basketball, boxing, football, hockey, soccer) and entertainment events (e.g.,
music concerts, dog shows, theatrical productions). Violence at these events is
rare in North America compared with European countries, particularly when
compared with violence at soccer matches in Britain, Italy, Germany, the
Netherlands, and Belgium.4 Problems with
"football hooligans" in Britain are so widespread that violence
occurring at events elsewhere has been labeled the "spread of the English
Disease."5 Violence levels
tend to vary by type of entertainment or sporting event and across cultures.6 While no single
factor can explain why there is less spectator violence in North America,7 such events'
negative impact can be great and warrant specific attention. Recent events,
such as the violent outbreak at the 2004 Indiana Pacers and Detroit Pistons
basketball game,8 highlight the
need for careful planning and prevention efforts. Failure to prevent these
incidents can produce a variety of negative consequences, including injury to
spectators, entertainers, and security personnel; decreased public confidence;
damage to the reputation of the facility and those providing the entertainment;
and property destruction.9
† In this
guide, we address both actual and threatened incidents of violence. We use the
terms violence and aggression interchangeably to refer to such incidents. We
also use the terms stadium and arena interchangeably, while acknowledging that
arenas are generally smaller and more often enclosed than stadiums.
The six
most common forms of spectator aggression are as follows:
1. verbal—singing, chanting, and yelling taunts or
obscenities;
2. gesturing—signaling to others with threatening or
obscene motions;
3. "missile" throwing—throwing items such as
food, drinks, bricks, bottles, broken seats, and cell phones at particular or
random targets;
4. swarming—rushing the field or stage and trying to
crash the gates to gain entry, or rushing the exit, both of which may result in
injury or death from trampling;
5. property destruction—knocking down sound systems,
tearing up the playing field, and burning/damaging the venue or others'
property; and
6. physical—spitting, kicking, shoving, fistfights,
stabbings, and shootings.10
Little
documentation is available to help us develop a profile of those most likely to
engage in the above behaviors. We do know that when physical violence is
documented, the perpetrators are most often male.11 Studies of
university students suggest that males are more likely than females to consider
acts of aggression at sporting events, although this difference becomes less
pronounced when less physical forms of aggression are considered.12 Reports of
spectator ejections from sporting events suggest that rowdy and abusive fans
tend to be middle-class professionals,13 although
ticket prices likely influence this finding. Like the level of violence, we
should expect the type of violent spectator to change based on the form of
entertainment provided. While middle-class adult males are more likely to
become aggressive at sporting events, young adolescent girls may exhibit
similar behaviors at a boy-band concert.
The forms
of violence outlined above can take place between spectators and others in and
around the venue. Violence can occur between the following:
·
two or
more spectators, or groups of spectators;
·
spectators
and entertainers—entertainers include those engaged in competition, coaches,
referees, and performers;
·
spectators
and stadium personnel—personnel include security as well as general employees;
and
·
spectators
and the venue—the venue includes all physical structures and properties, both
permanent and temporary (e.g., vehicles), present during the event.
You can
generally classify spectator violence as either spontaneous or organized.14 Organized
violence is very rare in the United States and is seen more often in European
sport matches that attract large numbers of hardcore fans from other countries.
These fans form "gangs" who attend events intending to cause a
disturbance. U.S. events tend to experience more spontaneous violence resulting
from an overzealous or intoxicated crowd (e.g., wild dancing in a so-called
"mosh pit"). It is important to distinguish between organized and
spontaneous violence, since each requires different solutions. Specific factors
that contribute to spontaneous spectator violence are explored below.
Factors
Contributing to Spectator Violence in Stadiums
Understanding
the factors that contribute to problems in your jurisdiction will help you
frame your own local analysis questions, determine effectiveness measures,
recognize key intervention points, and select appropriate responses.
It is
important to recognize the characteristics of each venue, event, and available
staff that may increase fan aggression. No single characteristic of these
elements can guarantee that violence will or will not occur. However, a
combination of poorly designed physical environments, high-energy events, and poorly
trained or inexperienced staff will increase the likelihood of spectator
violence.
Local
analysis may reveal unique characteristics of your venue, event, or staff that
facilitate violence. Your analysis should be based on the spectator violence
triangle (Figure 1) that incorporates these major elements. This triangle is a
modification of the widely used problem analysis triangle (see www.popcenter.org for
a description). The relative importance of each side of the triangle will vary
from event to event. Fixing problematic characteristics on any one side of the
triangle may reduce the likelihood of spectator violence. Fixing more than one
side should give greater assurance that your preventive efforts will work.
Figure 1
also lists specific characteristics of venues, events, and staff found to be
related to higher levels of spectator violence in stadiums. While some of these
factors may be difficult or impossible to change, it is important to understand
how each contributes to the likelihood of aggression. Each of these is
described next.
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